__________________________
By
Andrew B. Ellis
May 3, 2002
The
beautiful thing about the concept of baptism in the New Testament is that it is
a multi-faceted model. Although this
rite has so many discussions surrounding it in various contexts and by various
authors, it is our focus to study Paul’s theology of death, burial and
resurrection in baptism. The central
portions of scripture to be discussed are in two of Paul’s letters, both of
which had numerous issues to contend with in regards to their Jewish
heritage. The transition into the
Christian age was in many ways overshadowed by its Jewish roots, so in each
case the context of the epistle must be carefully examined.
Lest
we be misled into thinking baptism was purely a New Testament event, we should
understand that its roots as a ceremonial act were used in many areas of the
world and in many different religious contexts. A.J.M. Wedderburn’s position is that Paul’s emphasis on baptism
and “burial” was similar to the Hellenistic traditions of mystical initiation
rites.[1] Wedderburn also mentions that in 1887, Otto
Pfleiderer likened the putting on of Christ in burial of baptism to the putting
on of animal masks in Mithras mystery cultish rites.[2]
The mysteries of
Eleusis, Mithras and Isis (Egyptian as well as Hellenistic cults) all practiced
baptisms “for the dead” to be “united with their dead.”[3] Therefore, when Paul interacted with the
Pagan community in Corinth, and in places such as the setting for his Mars Hill
sermon to the Athenians, he would’ve had some understanding of their religious
backgrounds. One major conceptual
distinction Everett Ferguson points out is that while the mystery cults would
have practiced baptismal rites for their sanctified, the emphasis was generally
set on those who were chosen and who were already pure. These proceedings were usually in secret,
which is why not much is known in detail of their ceremonies even through
archaeology. The staunch contrast
between the pagan principle and the Christian tradition that Paul would
instruct is that the burial into Christ was for all men who would respond in
humility, and all were unworthy.[4]
The Jewish
ceremonial washings included baptism as its primary means of cleansing, and was
typically practiced in a tebilah service, which was necessary for all
Pagan converts into Judaism.[5] Although this meaning of baptizo is
not the same as the meaning Paul uses in Romans and Colossians, it helps us
understand the background of their practice, and their familiarity with baptism
in general. In other Jewish practice,
the rite of baptism was used to cleanse from impurities for “a number of causes
including contact with dead bodies, leprosy, bodily discharges, and even to
cleanse men from defilement by nocturnal ejaculation.”[6]
Josephus speaks
of John the baptizer’s influence as having influence on those of the Jewish
Qumran community. John’s influence
there is supported by evidence of his home and his ministering to the “outlying
areas” given in the scriptures and the
practice of repentant baptism used by the community itself.[7]
Although these
are but a few examples of baptismal use in the first century, it is most likely
that Paul was influenced the greatest by his own culture, as a “Pharisee of
Pharisees” and being well educated in the Jewish community in which he was
raised. In Philippians 3, Paul
discusses his background and mentions that as pertained to the law he was
“blameless.” Undoubtedly, Paul’s primary
understanding of the concept of baptism came from his heritage, although he may
have also been influenced to some degree by his knowledge of Pagan ceremonies;
but clearly, his words in Romans and Colossians came from the Spirit of God.
Romans 6 is the
context for the primary instruction of Paul in regards to the Christian’s new
life through burial in Christ. Later we
will discuss Colossians 2 and 3 and relate their parallelism in teaching. In Romans 6, the beginning of the chapter offers
an abrupt breakup of the context beginning in 5:18 in regards to the new realm
of grace the saints are under, as contrasted with the Law’s condemnation. This is not to say that the Law was
inherently hopeless or that is was completely unable to be kept, but that it
simply could not wash away sin. (c.f.
Luke 1:5, Zacharias and wife Elizabeth were “walking blamelessly in all the
commandments and requirements of the Lord.”)
Under the Law, “sin reigned to death” and in Christ, grace “reigns
through righteousness.” True to the
context, there must have been misunderstanding as to the nature of grace
reigning in the life of the Christian.
With this, Paul begins the complex discussion of how grace can reign, as
one dies to the old man of sin, without that grace giving a license for open
sin. It is safe to say that Paul never
loses sight of the “soteriological center” in his understanding of baptism.[8]
As has been
mentioned, in the Jews cultic behavior, baptism was a very familiar event to
many. The distinguishing thing about
the Christian rite was that it bestowed the gift of the Spirit along with the
benefits of justification and sanctification.[9] So Paul begins to paint the picture of death
and resurrection with Christ as the method of similitude to him. This of course is only done through baptism,
and it would seem that Paul’s understanding of burial in baptism was only a
parenthetical statement of method, in the middle of the discussion of their
attaining the death of the old man of sin.
The method of
baptism is of small importance to some, but in fact bears much weight when the
imagery is put into practical terms.
One thought on the purpose of water baptism is that it simply symbolizes
Spirit baptism, and that “water baptism in Romans 6 is secondary at best.”[10] David Plaster makes this denial of water
baptism on the basis of Jesus’ commands for the disciples to baptize in the
name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, thereby not correlating the burial
with Christ in Paul’s writing to any salvation-oriented event. Plaster goes on to quote Tertullian’s
practice of “thrice immersing” on the basis of the triune nature of God, but
nowhere discusses becoming “like Christ.”
How grave are
the implications of committing oneself to burial in baptism? Certainly the idea of “becoming Christ” in
our being made like him through burial and resurrection is humbling when it is
truly comprehended. Perhaps this
concept may never truly be comprehended, but the practice observed by
Tertullian is staggering to say the very least. “On the Thursday before the
Sunday of the baptism (Passover and Pentecost were the preferred times) the
candidate, according to Hippolytus, bathed.
He spent Friday and Saturday in fasting, on Saturday was exorcised by
the bishop (to drive out any demons), and spent Saturday night in a vigil of
Scripture reading and instruction.
Tertullian refers to fasting, praying and confessing one’s sins.”[11] This description by Ferguson relates just
one fascinating account of early attitudes toward this all-inclusive event
of burial with Christ.
The text of
Colossians 2 is also important in understanding Paul’s rationale because there
were inherent problems in the church at Colosse. Some false teachers had been springing up saying their faith in
Christ was “not good enough” and more was required. Among the things said to be required by some was circumcision,
and even some ritualistic rules such as “do not touch, do not taste…” It is apparent that some Judaizing influence
was there, however, the touch/taste traits were not that typical of Jewish
cultic rites. The point is, in the
Colossian context, Paul is explaining the all-sufficient nature of Christ and
through burial, baptism, resurrection, and even circumcision makes the point
about the new life the Colossians are to live.
The phrase “in Him” occurs at the beginning of each verse from 9-11,
showing the position of Christ as superior to all other practices. In this, Paul is able to show in Col.
2:11-12 that in Christ is the great circumcision, the great burial, the great
resurrection, and in his dwells “all the fullness of the Godhead bodily.”[12]
Schneider
remarks that by linking baptism with death and resurrection, baptism took on
its deepest possible meaning.[13] What is the significance of baptism to this
discussion of death? It must be that
the rite of baptism most closely assimilates the literal death of a man, his
burial and his resurrection to life, as partakes in the relationship to
Christ. The motif of death/resurrection
is a phenomenal illustration to correlate with Christ’s death on the cross for
all humanity. Pagan ceremonies of a
similar basis in method bear no resemblance in motive to this grand imagery.[14]
Here O’brien
makes the observation that the rising up with Christ in verse 12 is a rising in
faith, not in the emergence from the waters of burial in baptism. His point is to say that faith is what gives
the resurrected man the new life, not simply baptism; but baptism is the
grave. He correlates this thought to
Romans 6:3 as well, however, he admits that his understanding commits no damage
to the imagery correlating resurrection to baptism.[15]
“The convert
participates in Christ’s death, burial, and resurrection.” In this act of baptism, only immersion could
closely symbolize the burial that is taking place, and as Ferguson says,
baptism is at this point an act of “dynamic symbolism” in which the symbol
(itself) is partaking of the reality symbolized.[16]
One of the
groundbreaking works of the past century on “burial and resurrection” was by
Robert Tannehill. His proposition was
that the believer is essentially included in the death of Christ by his
submission in baptism, thus becoming like Christ in his very nature.[17] Tannehill comments that here in the context
of Romans 6, Paul is not so much concerned with the methodology of baptism as a
ritual, nor does he go in any depth into the exact method of the baptism, but
the point of his discussion is that a believer must be transferred from the
reign of one dominion to another. E.P.
Sanders put it this way: “in Romans 6:7, the perfect passive verb ‘one who has
been righteoused’ is forced to mean ‘one who by dying with Christ escapes the
old creation where sin reigns.’”[18]
In the image of
baptism, there is no greater picture of complete death and absorption in the
character and death of Christ. Albeit
brief, the burial in water perfectly signifies what is taking place in Christ’s
death and burial.[19] Some have ventured to say that the death of
which a convert is partaking is in baptism a literal joining in the cross of
Christ.[20] This literal position may give some comfort
to some - in the sense of similarity- but it offers no logical help in
understanding the concept of the man of sin dying and rising to walk in newness
of character, being, and in every thought.
Burial of the believer
in the “watery grave” of baptism is correlative of the death of Christ not in a
literal sense, and cannot be a perfect symbol of Christ’s death. Criticism has been made by some (Tannehill,
Wedderburn, Agersnap) as to the nature of the symbolism Paul makes in the
burial rite. Agersnap comments that it
may well be asked why Paul makes the relation to Christ’s death to be made in
baptism, since Christ was not put to death by drowning.[21] There are some who doubt that nature of
baptism to be anything but a symbol, merely a way for Paul to fulfill his
imagery of burial, but having no establishment of relationship at all.[22] Agersnap also contends, “what is decisive
does not occur at baptism… but when Christ died, was buried, and arose.[23] While it is true that the event of Paul’s
great case is the “decisive event,” baptism must not be underestimated in its
role as an agent to establish the relationship with Christ. Nor must we be caught up in the sense of
Paul’s discussion of death and relate little or no importance to the baptismal
fount. If baptism were not a threshold
event, why does Paul use the language of “being made in the likeness” with
regard to burial and resurrection?
This burial must in fact be the event under our own power of decision to
place us in fellowship with Christ; there can be no other clear correlation to
Christ!
Although Paul
stresses it’s importance to acquiring a “fusing together” with Christ, he never
states that baptism alone does anything, quite to the contrary, Peter’s
teaching in I Peter 3:21 shows the “bath” accomplishes nothing. But when accompanied by an understanding of
the convert that his life is under sin’s reign and his only hope is to submit
to the one who has conquered death itself, baptism is the tomb from which
resurrection is possible. How else can
one contact the death of Christ, except in likeness to that death? For Cranfield to state that no relationship
is established denies that a man is “buried” in baptism at all. Without burial, baptism is only a bath. The concept Paul is bringing to the Romans
(and Colossians) is that when they were dead, they became buried with Christ,
and rose again to walk in newness. If
no relationship is established at baptism, then Paul is advocating a burial of
a man that is alive to righteousness.
This would shred the case made of man’s need for contacting Christ, and
tear apart the imagery of Paul’s burial/resurrection motif. Badke says that baptism’s central theme is
allegiance, thus the burial of the man of sin is only a symbol of his renewed
attitude in coming to God.[24] If allegiance is the central theme of
baptism, this destroys the idea of contextual theology. Paul is here not discussing baptism as in
Corinthians, where baptism into Moses was correlated to devotion to Christ, or
Galatians, where baptism is “clothing oneself” with Christ, but he is making
the case for baptism in this context for the purpose it meets here. We must be careful to neither cross over
contextual lines nor to over-generalize in the rites that carry over to other
situations. In essence, the epistles
themselves hide Paul’s view of baptism.[25] To pull his discussion of baptism from its
proper context is abusive and accomplishes no purpose but a false security for
any person’s particular set of beliefs on the vivid role baptism plays in the
killing of the man of sin.
Baptism as a
burial has often become seen only as a meager ceremony, and not a catastrophic
event in the bringing to life a dead person.[26] Before continuing with the depth of Paul’s
argument on participating in Christ’s death, it would be beneficial to consider
the importance of the view of burial in Christ in other early Christian
practice.
The concept of
atonement and justification is a challenging ideal that Paul explores here as
well. In Christ, as one has become like
Christ in the “likeness of his death” and in the “likeness of his
resurrection,” Paul says Christ’s death occurred once for all. Peter Stuhlmacher does well when he says
that atonement necessitates identification with the sacrifice, such as in
Jewish Levitical atonement sacrifices, where the Priest would identify himself
with the sacrifice by placing his hands on the beast. Like this example above, we can only identify with Christ through
baptism, in a burial with him; a ceremonial lying of our hands upon him as a
sacrifice.[27] This image is helpful to consider what is
actually taking place. While the
priests of old could only relate to their sacrifice of atonement through
touching the offering – they could not become like the offering itself – we now
can relate with Christ in that he emptied himself to take on our very form, and
in our burial we become like him! These
points Stuhlmacher makes are very strong, but also intriguing in lieu of his
heavy anchoring upon a faith-only doctrine.[28]
One of the
simplest interpretations of being buried and raised with Christ, is that of
James Dunn, when he speaks of the object of being buried with Christ
given in two phrases in Romans 6:4.
“’In order as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the
Father, so we also might walk in newness of life.’ The object of
conversion-initiation is not a better kind of death in the future, but a
new quality of life in the here and now.[29]
It is imperative
to understanding burial to realize that Paul’s main emphasis is not the
baptism in Romans 6. Although perhaps
not the primary emphasis in the text, baptism does however perpetuate Paul’s
case in the death of the old man of sin.
The word die, or some form of death is used 16 times from
5:21-6:13. Paul is showing the Roman
Christians that their new life is “hidden with Christ in God” through their new
likeness to Christ through his death; and death is the
predecessor to the glory of God in the resurrection. The use of “dead” is used figuratively of course, although there
seem to be two different ideas of death.
One is that death refers to man in the state of condemnation from God,
and the other is certainly the death with Christ as the means of man’s
atonement. “Though not necessarily
contradictory ideas… the figurative use of ‘death’ and ‘dead’ is a common one,
whereas… dying with Christ and the consequent paradox of life in and through
death is anything but common.”[30]
When this topic
is raised, it seems in the religious world in general there are nearly as many
convictions as there are writers on the subject. Karl Barth comments on Romans 6 that Christ “fills the void”
where the death has occurred and the resurrection can begin to take shape.[31] For the Christian the submission at the
point of baptism was in essence the greatest act of martyrdom. Herein the convert is convicted of his sin
and knows the sentence that is upon his own head. To die for his cause - which is to put away the old man of sin as
the theme of his baptism - so that he can actuate the resurrection of the new
life! This imagery of the burial in the
fount of baptism is so passionately held by some of the early church fathers, it
is interesting to hear their perspective.
It seems any time water is brought up in many of those church fathers’
writings; it is taken to the context of baptism!
In the second
century, Hermas put it this way: “The seal then is the water. They descend then into the water dead and
they ascend alive.”[32] Irenaus said “First of all, it admonishes us
to remember that we have received baptism for remission of sins in the name of
God the Father, and in the name of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who became
incarnate and died and was raised, and in the Holy Spirit of God, that we be no
more children of mortal men, but of the eternal and everlasting God.[33] Cyril recorded that the candidates for
baptism were to be naked, signifying the stripping of the old man of sin, and
being plunged into the grave three times.
These three immersions were, in their tradition, indicative of the three
days Christ lay in the tomb, which gives a deeper emphasis than the
before-mentioned “thrice immersed” man in simply the name of the triune
God. This account is valuable because
Cyril was one who had the advantage of being present at the death, burial and
resurrection of Christ.[34]
Although not an
“Apostolic Father,” Martin Luther had a very strict adherence to Paul’s concept
of burial to resurrection in the text.
Luther made many explicit references to baptism as a part of the
justification process, and it is evident that Romans 6 and Colossians 2 in part
shaped his baptism convictions. One
concept that Luther shrewdly observes in Romans 6:3-4 is that he “understood
justification as the final execution of the wages of sin.”[35] Barth remarks of Luther’s feelings on the
grace of Romans 6 when he summed up burial and resurrection as “the death of
death, the sin of sin, the poison of poison, and the imprisonment of
imprisonment.”[36]
The imagery of
dominion that Barth also alludes to is stirring when it applies to burial and
resurrection in baptism. In the realm
of death, prior to baptism, Satan’s victory is sure. The death of Christ is clearly visible as the triumph of Satan’s
perpetual mission achieves the defeat of God.
When Christ dies, Satan has succeeded, but while he revels in victory,
the jeers of his stupor are disturbed by the explosive shriek of the Glory of
God springing forth in resurrection!
This is the “glory of the Father” that Christ was raised in, as we
imitate the death, defeat and resurrection, victory through our baptism.
When buried in
baptism into Christ’s death, one is coming nearer to the experience of Golgotha
than ever.[37] Although we are not physically on the cross
with Christ, we are, as it were, crucified with Christ as the thieves
were. The imagery Paul uses in Romans
6:6 of our old self being “crucified with him” shows through in this context as
Schneider reminds us. Lorna Brockett
points out that Romans 6:5 statement “if we have become united with him in the
likeness of his death,” shows the true nature of our new relationship of
transformation from buried to alive.
The Greek word translated “united” literally means “grown together.”[38] Dunn uses the term “fused” to describe the
meaning of “united” in the likeness of his death.[39] Dunn also discussed the end of the reign of
death and the beginning of the reign of Christ. The modern-day image of epoxy in model airplane assembly also
correlates with Christ’s fellowship with us:
rather than a “glue pasted to glue” adhesive, the epoxy literally takes
on the chemical nature of whatever it is applied to. This is the sharing with Christ.
The fusing of us
to Christ is not merely identification with him, but more importantly a sharing
with him in transition from one era to another. The life of sin no longer reigning over us, and although not
exempt from sin, we are exempt from the reign of it. Still further, the point is made that as Paul is instructing here
in Romans 6:11, the death to sin is an imperative cessation of the old
lifestyle. To live as though Christ
“never died” is to allow sin to remain in its dominating condition, and this is
not the state of dominion that Christians are in after they submit in burial to
be fused to Christ.[40]
Considerable
skepticism has been made of the texts of Colossians and Romans in regard to
Paul’s use of burial and resurrection to depict the death of the sin-man, and
rise of the righteous man. Agersnap
contends that Paul should have used more condemning language if he was
correcting a false doctrine of baptism, or even a false doctrine of
resurrection, as if Christ’s resurrection was the only one referred to. It appears to Agersnap that the
religio-historical background impairs Paul from correcting, as he should.[41] Although Wedderburn questions the validity
of the practice and the origin of Paul’s baptism in Romans and Colossians, he
rightly maintains “whatever the case, the Romans knew their baptism was a break
with the old life and the start of the new life. They may have even thought they were obeying Jewish law.”[42] Although Wedderburn questions the
authenticity of Paul’s theology in the Romans account, he seems to get the main
point of the text, that they certainly did know that their life
was now a different one entirely that it was before.
So what does it
all mean? When burial and resurrection
is discussed, we’ve got to get it down to practical application. The question must be raised, “how does that
newness of life occur?” Not only does
the life of the individual change as a benefit of the grace it is offered
through justification, but also the Spirit fills the Christian as the
fulfillment of the promise of Pentecost, when Peter said that all who were
baptized would receive “remission of sins… and the gift of the Holy
Spirit.” As baptism is now liberation
from sin, the Christian is free from slavery and bondage to that sin to act in
a manner indicative of righteousness.[43]
For Paul the
ideas brought forth in Colossians best describe the ethics associated with the
new life. The resurrected man walks in
an implied fellowship with Christ.[44] Paul addresses the former state when he
instructs in Romans 6:9 that Christ is “never to die again,” which implies the
character that the Christians should be now exemplifying. This is not to say that sin is impossible in
the resurrected life, but in theory the practice of sin is inconceivable.
The Colossian
Christians had the seal of Christ’s death set upon them in their baptism (Col.
2:12), and in this burial they were truly involved in his death and laid in his
tomb.[45] Here they are buried not literally like
Jesus (as Beasley-Murray says)[46],
but in condemnation of the fate of sin, and the cessation of the carnal
nature. Murray also states that in the
Colossian mention of circumcision, Paul contrasts that spiritual circumcision
with the “new creation” of the man in burial with Christ. That one can only be made like Christ
in baptism is sure, because this is the only true type given in the scripture
to show the meeting of sinner and propitiation in a single state. Circumcision in Col. 2:11-12 is merely to
show the attitude of the heart that is also shown through its spiritual
correlative, baptism.
Beasley-Murray
also assesses that the death and resurrection of Christ alone are not adequate
acts to effect man’s redemption; this is true because anything else would
support a faith-only doctrine such as Stuhlmacher weakly proposes. The sinner must initiate the
relationship with Christ; he cannot be made like him except by his own will.[47] Nor can Christ’s offering of his own self as
the supreme sacrifice atone for the sin of an impenitent person. The greatest challenge in our practice of
the ethics of this burial is to “keep our perspectives clear, that our
attitudes to the relationships and attractions of this world be determined in
the light of these epochal and decisive events, that he lives in this world as
one who does indeed share in Christ’s death, not yet fully liberated from the
power of death but no longer behoven to sin, as one who draws his vital
energies and motivations from God in Christ Jesus.”[48]
The positive
counterpart to one’s death with Christ is certainly his resurrection with
him. In Colossians 2:12, and also 3:1,
Paul uses the past tense to describe their resurrection. This most certainly could not be mistaken
for the final resurrection at the eschaton, but the resurrection into
their new lives of righteousness. The
ethical obligation now to the resurrected man is in 3:1, “therefore if you have
been raised up with Christ, keep seeking the things which are above.” In this chapter, Paul clearly shows exactly
what the realistic new man will do. He
will, as Christ did before him, keep seeking those above-earthly things, as
indeed “Christ is seated at the right hand of God.” Here again, Paul mentions their death, and that their lives are
hidden with Christ in God.” Herein lies
the ethics of burial in baptism; to think on things above, to consider the
members of the earthly body as dead, and to walk as the man renewed in
knowledge (Col. 3:10).
Because now the
person of faith has entered into a new aeon of salvation, “that person has died
with Christ (Rom. 6:5); he or she has been crucified with Christ (Gal. 2:20);
the old self has been crucified with him (Rom. 6:6); the flesh has been
crucified (Gal. 5:24); the body of flesh has been put off in circumcision of
the heart (Col. 2:11; Deut. 30:6).”[49] Here the old man is put away in action, in
reality, in symbolism, and in the intellect.
Every action of the sinful state of dominion has been put aside to
participate in the death and resurrection of Christ.
One of the
interesting correlations to this life of change is the wording of Ambrose in
the 4th century speaks of the death and resurrection of the
Christian in symbol, as that of a fish.
The fish whose submersion is its life participates in his own
resurrection daily.[50] This is the life of the Christian who has
died with Christ, and now participates in newness of life daily. Christ cannot be put to death again; he has
conquered that realm of which death was the curse of sin. Neither can the buried Christian be interred
again in the sinful dominion of the past life.
The burial of
Christ is a “rite of passage” or a crossing over. A transition from one state to another, and that state is the
state of justification, of Christ as our unified correlative in the Spirit, of
whom we have likened ourselves through burial and resurrection. “By taking the moral condition of man to its
most extreme expression – the death of a just man for the unjust race of men –
an event is made both moral and metaphysical.
Baptism is a repeat of this event.”[51]
The “putting to
death” of whatever is earthly in Colossians 3:3ff is the continued daily
practice of our burial in baptism. By
mortifying those things, our lives no longer bear any resemblance to that form
of past failure.
As Oepke words
it, baptism shares with Christ’s death a “once for all” character.[52]
Consequently,
burial in baptism is the most comprehensive similarity with Christ that a
Christian can take part in. Although
the Christian is not daily baptized, the Christian daily offers himself as a
“living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God”
(Rom. 12:1).
The thoughts of
Justin Martyr seem appropriate to describe this new-found relationship that is
so blissful: “For Christ, being ‘the firstborn of all creation,’ became also
the beginning again of another race, who were born again by him through water,
faith, and wood (the mystery of the cross).[53]
So I guess the
method of burial is important!
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agersnap, Soren. Baptism and the New Life. Translated by Christine and
Frederick
Crowley. Oxford: Aarhus University
Press, 1999.
Badke, William B. “Baptised into Moses-Baptised into
Christ: A Study in
Doctrinal
Development.” The Evangelical
Quarterly, 88:1: 1988.
Barth, Karl. Epistle
to the Romans. Translated by Edwyn
C. Hoskyns. London:
Oxford,
1957
Beasley-Murray,
G.R. Baptism in The New
Testament. London: Macmillan,
1962.
Block, Abraham P. The Biblical and Historical Background of
Jewish Customs
and
Ceremonies. New York:
DTAV Publishing House, Inc., 1980.
Brockett, Lorna. The Theology of Baptism. Notre Dame, IN: Fides Publishers,
Inc.,
1971.
Burnish, Raymond. The Meaning of Baptism. Great Britain: Alcuin Club/SPCK,
1985.
Cramer, Peter. Baptism and Change in the Early Middle
Ages c. 200-c.1150.
New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Cranfield, C.E.B. “Romans 6:1-14, Revisited.” The Expository Times. 106 (1994):
40-43.
Dunn, James D.G. Baptism in the Holy Spirit. Naperville, IL: Alec R. Allenson,
Inc., 1970.
Dunn, James D.G. Romans. Word Biblical Commentary 38a.
Dallas, TX: Word
Publishing,
1988.
Dunn, James D.G. “Salvation Proclaimed.” The Expository Times. 93 (Je 1982):
259-264.
Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. Second Edition. Grand
Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1993.
Ferguson, Everett. Early Christians Speak. Austin, TX: Sweet Publishing, 1971.
Ferguson, Everett. The Church of Christ: an Ecclesiology for
Today. Grand
Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1996.
Hartmann, Lars. “Baptism.”
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Johannes. Baptism and Church in the
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[1] A.J.M. Wedderburn, Baptism and
Resurrection, (Tubingen: J.C.B. Mohr (Paul
Siebeck), 1987) 68-69.
[2] Wedderburn, 3.
[3] Lars Hartmann, “Baptism” in The Anchor
Bible Dictionary, ed. David Noel
Freeman.
(New York:Doubleday, 1992),: 583.
[5] Ralph P. Martin, “How the First Christians
Worshipped” in Introduction to the
History of Christianity, (Minneapolis:Fortress Press, 1995):
123-124.
[6] Abraham P. Bloch, The Biblical and
Historical Background of Jewish Customs
and Ceremonies, (New York: DTAV Publishing House, Inc.
1980): 61-62.
[7] Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early
Christianity, 492.
[8] Hartmann, 587.
[9] Gerald S. Sloyan, “Jewish Ritual of the
First Century C.E. and Christian
Sacramental Behavior,” in BiblicalTheology
Bulletin, 15: 102.
[10] David R. Plaster, “Baptism By Triune
Immersion,” in Grace Theological
Journal,
6.2 (1985): 384.
[11] Everett Ferguson, Early Christians
Speak,(Austin, TX: Sweet Publishing, 1971):
39.
[12] Peter T. O’brien, Colossians, Philemon,
Word Biblical Commentary 44, (Waco,
TX: Word Publishing, 1982): 118.
[13] Johannes Schneider, Baptism and Church
in the New Testament, tr. Ernest A.
Payne, (London: The Carey Kingsgate Press
Ltd., 1957): 37.
[14] James D.G. Dunn, Romans Word
Commentary Series 38a, (Dallas, TX: Word
Publishing, 1988): 313.
[15] O’brien, 119.
[16] Everett Ferguson, The Church of Christ:
an Ecclesiology for Today, (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996): 190-191.
[17] Robert C. Tannehill, Dying and Rising
with Christ, (Berlin: Verlag Alfred
Topelmann, 1967): 24.
[18] E.P. Sanders, Paul: A Very Short
Introduction, (New York: Oxford, 1991): 88.
[19] James D.G. Dunn, Baptism in the Holy
Spirit, (Naperville, IL: Alec R. Allenson,
Inc.): 141.
[20] Wedderburn, 69.
[21] Soren Agersnap, Baptism and the New
Life, tr. Christine and Frederick
Crowley, (Headington, Oxford: Aarhus
University Press, 1999): 269.
[22] C.E.B. Cranfield, “Romans 6:1-14,
Revisited,” in The Expository Times, 106
(1994): 41.
[23] Agersnap, 39.
[24] William B. Badke, “Baptised into
Moses-Baptised into Christ: A Study in
Doctrinal Development,” in The
Evangelical Quarterly, 88:1 (1988): 29.
[25] Hartmann, 587.
[26] Geoffrey Wainwright, “Images of Baptism,”
in Reformed Liturgy and Music, 19
(Fall 1985): 176.
[27] Peter Stuhlmacher, Revisiting Paul’s
Doctrine of Justification, (Downer’s
Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2001): 59n.
[28] Stuhlmacher, 11.
[29] James D.G. Dunn, “Salvation Proclaimed,” The
Expository Times, 93 (Je
1982): 262.
[30] A.J.M.
Wedderburn, “Hellenistic Christian Traditions in Romans 6?” in New
Testament
Studies, 29: 339-340.
[31] Karl Barth, Epistle to the Romans,
tr. Edwyn C. Hoskyns, (London: Oxford,
1957): 195.
[32] Ferguson, Early Christians Speak,
33.
[33] Ibid, 35.
[34] Raymond Burnish, The Meaning of
Baptism, (Great Britain: Alcuin
Club/SPCK, 1985): 93.
[35] Robert Kolb, “God Kills to Make Alive,” in
Lutheran Quarterly, 12 (1998) 35.
[36] Barth, 174.
[37] Schneider, 31.
[38] Lorna Brockett, The Theology of Baptism,
(Notre Dame, IN: Fides Publishers,
Inc., 1971): 22.
[39] Dunn, Salvation Proclaimed, 263.
[40] Dunn, Salvation Proclaimed, 261.
[41] Agersnap, 39.
[42] Wedderburn, 67.
[43] Hartmann, 588.
[44] Gloria van Donge, “In What Way Is Paul’s
Gospel (Euangelion) of Freedom
Theology of the Cross (Theologica Crucis)?”
in Colloquium, 21 (1988): 21.
[45] O’brien, 118.
[46]G.R.
Beasley-Murray, Baptism in The New Testament, (London: Macmillan,
1962): 155-158.
[47] Beasley-Murray, 266.
[48] Dunn, Salvation Proclaimed, 264.
[49] George Eldon Ladd, A Theology of the
New Testament, Revised edition, ed.
Donald A. Hagner, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1993): 536.
[50] Peter Cramer, Baptism and Change in the
Early Middle Ages c. 200-c.1150,
(New York: Cambridge University Press,
1993): 70.
[51] Cramer, 34.
[52] Albrecht Oepke, “Baptism” in Theological
Dictionary of the New Testament, 1:
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964): 542.
[53] Everett Ferguson, Early Christians Speak,
34.